2,000 Years of Chinese Art
Han Dynasty to the Present
January 23 - May 23, 2010
The Collection
China is viewed by most in the Western world as a homogeneous country with a single culture. Its land mass is similar to that of the United States, but it is inhabited by 1.3 billion people, making it the most populous country in the world. This population is composed of more than 56 official ethnic groups, each with its own customs, traditions, language, foods, and in some cases, religious beliefs.
In the many centuries of China’s history, numerous ethnic groups have ruled, and each has made contributions to the art and culture of what we have come to view today as “Chinese.” In this exhibition, the museum presents a brief glimpse into China’s history, with 80 examples of art from the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.–220 A.D.) to the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911 A.D.) and several contemporary works. Panels introducing each of the dynasties provide historical, geographical, and economic background.
The Han Dynasty
(206 B.C.–A.D. 220)
The Han Dynasty, the second Imperial Dynasty of China, was established in 206 B.C. after the fall of the Qin Dynasty (221–206 B.C.), and spanned more than four centuries, ending in A.D. 220. The Han Dynasty is considered one of the golden ages in China’s history.
During this era military excursions
increased the size of the
country, and trade along the overland
Silk Road greatly enhanced
economic prosperity. Trade was not just conducted through intermediaries,
but for the first time
caravans left China and journeyed
all the way to the Parthian Empire,
now in the Middle East. Trade with
the Middle East and India brought
to China material goods, such as
metalwork, and cultural influences— most importantly another
religion, Buddhism.
The State guided production of iron tools, thereby enhancing productivity in farming and establishing standards for weights and measures. It also guided census taking in an effort to control households and taxation. Significant advances in science and technology included increased crop production through crop rotation and water conservation, papermaking, the nautical steering rudder, the seismograph, and a hydraulic-powered armillary sphere for astronomy. The components of gunpowder were identified, although it was not fully developed until later.
Archaeological excavations show that artisans of the Han Dynasty made sophisticated contributions to material culture, including metal objects such as mirrors, lamps and containers, lacquerware (both decorative and functional objects made from wood and with many coats of resin), and earthenwares—all of which were placed about the bodies of well-to-do deceased persons in their tombs. A unique feature of some Han Dynasty wealthy burials were the jade plaque suits which enveloped the bodies of the deceased. Their status was not shown in the jade plaques but rather in the gold wires and silk threads that held the jades together.
Period of Disunion: Three Kingdoms Period
(220–280), Jin Dynasty (265–420), Northern Kingdoms & Dynasties and Southern Dynasties (304–589)
The Han Dynasty ended in 220 when its last emperor abdicated. More than three and a half centuries of warfare, economic instability, and political fragmentation followed, known as the “Period of Disunion.” It began with the breakup of China into three rival kingdoms, each with its own emperor claiming legitimate succession from the Han Dynasty and warring with the others. Between 263 and 280, each kingdom suffered defeats, and a new dynasty was established, the Jin. But famine and invaders from the steppes to the northwest displaced millions of Chinese to the south and southeast, including the Jin emperors. In the north, sixteen unstable kingdoms ruled for approximately a century, followed by the Northern Wei Dynasty formed by tribal horsemen from the northeast. Through wars, famine, and emigration, the population declined by an astounding 30 percent.
In the south, the Jin Dynasty was followed by Six Dynasties. The difficult times ended
as China was reunified once more by the two emperors of the Sui Dynasty (581–618).
The Period of Disunion, while reflecting tremendous political and social upheaval, was not without positive accomplishments. There were great literary achievements
(a number of emperors were themselves poets). Daoist scholars produced the first
comprehensive canon
of Daoist texts. Buddhism
expanded and
thousands of monasteries
were established,
along with the production
of great statuary
works. The Indian stupa,
originally a reliquary,
became the recognizable
pagoda. Overland trade
via the Silk Road continued
to play a major
economic role.
Tang Dynasty
(618–907)
In the early seventh century by uniting the aristocratic clans of all its regions the Tang Empire was established with a strong centralized state system. The empire ended nearly four centuries of division between northern and southern China and revolutionized the social and imperial structure of China.
The Tang Dynasty was a period
of expansion, during which much
of the territory lost since the Han
was regained. The Tang capital at
Chang’an (Xi’an) became one of
the richest and largest cities in the
world, home to a cosmopolitan
population of two million that
included numerous foreigners. At its
height, the Tang Empire stretched
from what is now Manchuria in the
northeast to what is now Vietnam
in the south. It was a time of great
prosperity enhanced by travel
along both the Silk Road and sea
routes. Chinese ceramics, tea, silk,
lacquerware, peaches, and pears
were exchanged for imported
horses, spices, perfumes, glassware,
and jewelry. Within China, trade
between the north and the south was enhanced by the Grand
Canal, constructed just before in the Sui Dynasty.
Literature, scholarship, and the arts flourished. The Tang Dynasty was a time of great inventions, great poets, and technologies, which influenced not only China but Asia as a whole. Figure painting and landscape painting took a leap forward, and woodblock printing made its appearance.
Much of what we know about Tang life has been learned from tombs where figures of people and animals, as well as implements of all sorts, were constructed of pottery to accompany the deceased into the nether world.
Liao Dynasty
(907–1125)
The Khitan people were a group of semi-nomadic tribes who lived in the valley of the
Hsi Liao River east of Mongolia (modern day Manchuria). When the Tang Dynasty fell
in 907 and the empire was divided once more, the Khitan took control of northeastern
China. Eventually the Khitan army faced that of the Song Dynasty, which had taken
over southern China. A treaty in 1005 between the two rulers effectively partitioned
China. The Song ruler agreed to pay tribute to the Liao Dynasty in order to avert war. The tribute served to urbanize the empire, expand the borders, and support a luxurious
lifestyle to which the Khitan rapidly became accustomed.
The level of influence of the Khitan people on Chinese culture has been debated. They had their own script, coins, and laws. However, artifacts of the Liao period reflect similarity to artifacts of the Tang Dynasty. Repoussé items of gold and silver as well as sancai (three color) glazed pottery utensils have been recovered from Liao gravesites. All religions were accepted, and Buddhism continued to flourish. Culturally, women played a more important role in Liao life than women in Chinese culture: they were seen as co-rulers with their husbands and were included in religious and other cultural ceremonies.
The downfall of the Liao Dynasty resulted from the resurgence of another Manchurian group whom the Khitan had suppressed, the Jurchen. The aggressive Jurchen slowly increased in strength, and their rebellion eventually led to the Liao downfall.
The Song Dynasty
(960–1126 Northern; 1126–1279 Southern)
The Tang Dynasty ended with fragmentation into Five Dynasties of consecutive ruling families in central China, and Ten Kingdoms, geographic subdivisions, in southern China. The two were unified by the Song Dynasty, beginning in 960. The Song Dynasty was divided into two distinct periods, the Northern Song period, 960–1126, and the Southern Song period, 1127–1279. While the northern portion of the empire was lost to the Jurchen (Jin Dynasty) in 1126, the Southern portion of the Dynasty remained strong, as it held more of the agricultural land and the majority of the population.
The Song Dynasty, often termed the most brilliant period in later Dynastic China, was
a time of social and economic change that led to cultural, political, and intellectual
influences extending well into the twentieth century. Politically, a shift took place
from the hereditary aristocratic
ruling class to a central bureaucracy
of scholar-officials chosen
through a civil service examination
process. In contrast to the cultural
and philosophical influences of the
Tang Dynasty, the Song period was
marked by a return to Confucian
traditions and thought.
Earlier innovations that became widespread in Song times include printed books, paper money, the magnetic compass, and gunpowder. Coal began to replace charcoal and steel to replace iron in weapons, tools, and construction. Southern farmers grew high-yield rice varieties from central Vietnam that matured quickly, allowing two crops per year. Maritime trade expanded in both luxury and commonplace products.
The arts flourished and collecting gained in importance. Paintings and calligraphy of
the Song period captured a new spirituality and richness. One of the greatest expressions
in Chinese art—landscape painting—blossomed during the Northern Song period.
The simplicity and elegant forms of the earliest periods were highly sought-after
and were captured in paintings, porcelains, and pottery. The pure white porcelains
produced from the brilliant pure white clays of the northern mountains replaced the
heavy green wares and were highly desired at court. Ding and xing white porcelains
and blue-green ru wares were the prized items of the day.
Yuan Dynasty
(1279–1368)
Unifying the Mongolian tribes to form a powerful
army, Temuchin was elected by the council of Mongol
chiefs and given the title of Genghis Khan, “Universal
Ruler.” Striking out to the east, south, and west, Mongol
armies conquered Central Asia, Persia, and lands
as far west as Russia, Hungary, and Poland. Kublai, a
grandson of Genghis, completed the conquest of China,
and although named the Great Khan, actually ruled the
eastern khanate, named Yuan (“original”) Dynasty.
During the Yuan Dynasty, Dadu (as the Forbidden City was then known) and present-day Beijing were built. Trade between the East and the West continued to expand, fostering understanding of one another’s cultures and various religious practices. This was the dynasty during which Marco Polo visited China. While the ethnic Chinese were ostracized in many ways, they wholly embraced the arts that flourished.
The Mongols divided the population into four classes, with those of Mongol birth
at the top. They were followed by the “colored eye people,” which included Uyghurs,
Central Asians, and Europeans. Next came the Manchus, Jurchen, and NorthernHan.
At the bottom of the list were the Southern Song Han and other southern groups. The
Mongols and other non-Chinese enjoyed offices and privileges. Many Muslims from
Central Asia became established as merchants and financial administrators, and
Christians also enjoyed Mongol rule. The Mongols did not assimilate into the Chinese
culture or learn their language. Such policies caused discontent among the Chinese
and led to the ultimate downfall of the dynasty in 1368.
The Ming Dynasty
(1368–1644)
Long years of ethnic discrimination and overtaxation
of the Han Chinese by the ruling Mongols,
massive flooding of the Yellow River, and
ultimately a rebellion of Chinese from the south, brought the Yuan
Dynasty to an end. The new ruler, known as the Hongwu Emperor,
named his dynasty Ming, meaning “brilliant.” Geographically, China
under the Ming Dynasty was smaller than the eastern khanate; it
included part of Manchuria but not Tibet or the western area along
the Silk Road.
In everyday government, Chinese scholar-bureaucrats were commonly chosen on the basis of merit and civil service examinations, without regard to family connections. Europeans appeared in ever-growing numbers in China, as ships brought new crops—maize, tobacco, and sweet potatoes—from the Americas. Ever mindful of the incursion of tribes from the north, the emperor ordered the Great Wall structurally fortified into its present form.
Not surprisingly, a major change of the Ming Dynasty was a focus on Chinese
culture. Ming emperors returned their attention to distinctively Chinese traditions,
reinstating Confucianism, the philosophy of the ancient Chinese. The emphasis on
Chinese culture produced a flowering in the arts. Ming architects produced the
splendor of the Forbidden City, the emperor’s residence in Beijing. Ming porcelain,
bronze, and lacquerware were coveted collectors’ items then and now. In literature,
the novel appeared.
The Qing Dynasty
(1644–1911)
The Jurchen, a large group of farmers, herders,
hunters, and foragers who lived in eastern
Manchuria, began to expand their territory to the
north and west, incorporating Mongols, immigrant
Koreans, and even northern Han into their
society. Calling themselves the Manchu, they conquered
Mongolia and Ming China, establishing the
Qing (“pure”) Dynasty. The use of firearms and artillery
in battle was widespread during this period.
The empire was further extended when the Qing
conquered the steppe region west of Mongolia.
The Qing favoring of an isolationist policy proved fatal in dealing with western foreign powers.
While Great Britain wanted Chinese silks
and tea, the Qing desired nothing from
them in return, causing a great trade
imbalance. As a result and against
Qing regulations, the British began
importing opium into China from
their Indian territories. This led to the
Opium Wars and British success, as
the Chinese greatly underestimated
the strength of the British army. Waning
military strength, internal rebellions,
forced concessions to European countries
and the United States, and usurpations of
power by provincial leaders and advisors, led to
the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. On January 1,
1912, the new Republic of China was declared.
Great contributions were made in literature and the arts during the Qing Dynasty, particularly during the reigns of the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong Emperors— the period known as “The Three Great Emperors” (1662–1795). The Kangxi Emperor, a poet and excellent calligrapher, commissioned a dictionary that is still in use today. He and the Qianlong Emperor were avid collectors, commissioning works of art in many different media—painting, calligraphy, sculpture, and porcelain—unequaled throughout the world. During the Yongzheng and Qianlong Emperors’ reigns (1723–1795), the imperial kilns produced fine porcelains, unsurpassed anywhere. European techniques in enamels and metal, previously unknown in China, were learned and perfected. The sumptuous imperial summer palace, the Yuan Ming Yuan, or Gardens of Perfect Brightness, was constructed and designed in Western taste with the aide of Jesuit priests whom the Qianlong Emperor befriended. Its destruction and burning by British and French troops during the Second Opium War in 1860 was an indelible symbol of foreign aggression. With the end of the Qing Dynasty came the end of perhaps the greatest period in Chinese culture and arts.
New Beginnings
(1912–present)
Although Sun Yat-sen, the first provisional president of the Republic of China, is considered
one of the greatest leaders of modern China, his political life was one of constant
struggle. After the success of the revolution, he quickly fell out of power and led
numerous revolutionary governments as a challenge to the warlords who controlled
much of the country. Increasing resentment of foreign companies, the hostilities of competing warlords, and strikes in various
localities contributed to the enormous political
unrest of the early twentieth century. Sun
did not live to consolidate his power over the
country. His Chinese Nationalist Party, or
Kuomintang, formed a fragile alliance with
the Communist Party that split into two
factions after his death in 1925. Struggles between
the two groups led to civil war and the
eventual founding of the People’s Republic of
China in 1949 by the victorious Communists.
The New Culture Movement, “xin wen hua yun dong,” which began in the 1920s, arose from the failure of the Republic of China to address China’s problems and called for a new Chinese culture based on global and western standards. This movement went into a period of quiescence when Mao Zedong launched the Cultural Revolution alleging that the “liberal bourgeois” were permeating society. It was not until after the death of Mao in 1976—well after the end of the Cultural Revolution—that a new movement once again came to life. Contemporary Chinese art began to bloom.
Today’s contemporary Chinese art is broad in scope, some artists borrowing upon traditional methods while still others drawing upon a new explosive contemporary style, totally departing from China’s past.
Suggested Readings
-
Craig Clunas. Art in China. Oxford History of Art Series. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. - Patricia Buckley Embry. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
- Fang Jing Pei. Symbols and Rebuses in Chinese Art. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 2004.
- Bamber Gascoigne. The Dynasties of China: A History. New York: Carroll and Graf Publishers, 2003.
- John Keay. A History of China. New York: Basic Books, 2009.
- Margaret Medley. The Chinese Potter: A Practical History of Chinese Ceramics. London: Phaidon Press, 1989.
- John Temple. The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery and Invention. New York: Simon and Schuster Inc., 1989.
- Robert L. Thorp and Richard Ellis Vinograd. Chinese Art and Culture. New York: Harry N. Abrams Inc., 2001.
- Frances Wood. The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.